The Congressional Failure to Enforce Equal Protection through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 314 I. THE SCOPE OF CONGRESS’S RESPONSIBILITY UNDER THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT ................................................................. 321 A. The Relevance of Judicial Interpretation .................................... 321 B. Distinguishing Mandatory, Discretionary, and Intermediate Duties ..................................................................... 323 C. The Duty to Act Consistent with Equal Protection ...................... 328 D. The Limitation on Private Causes of Action to Enforce Congress’s Duty .......................................................................... 330 II. EQUAL PROTECTION FAILURES AND VIOLATIONS IN TITLE I .............. 334 A. The History and Purpose of Title I .............................................. 336 B. The Deconcentration and Limited Impact of Title I Funds ......... 340 C. The Irrational Distribution of Title I Funds ................................ 343 D. Title I’s Exacerbation of Funding Inequalities............................ 348 E. Counterproductive Equity Standards .......................................... 352 1. The Prohibition on Supplanting Local Dollars ...................... 352 2. Comparability Standards ....................................................... 355 3. Disregard for Existing State Equity Obligations ................... 359 III. REMEDIES FOR CONSTITUTIONAL VIOLATIONS AND TITLE I’S FLAWS ................................................................................................. 363 A. Compliance with Existing State Constitutional and Statutory Requirements ............................................................... 364 B. Equitable Per-Pupil Expenditures ............................................... 366 C. Private Federal Cause of Action ................................................. 368